Claims, Evidence and Weak Arguments

An argument is a claim backed by reasons. Learning to separate the claim from the evidence, and spotting the common tricks that make weak arguments sound strong, will help you in debates, essays and every online comment section.

Break an argument into parts

• Claim: what someone wants you to believe, for example "This energy drink improves exam results".
• Evidence: the facts, data or examples offered in support, for example "a study of 2,000 students".
• Reasoning: the link that explains why the evidence supports the claim.
• Write each part down separately. Weak arguments often have a confident claim with very little evidence, or evidence that does not actually connect to the claim.
• Ask: if this evidence were true, would the claim definitely follow? Or could there be other explanations?

Fallacies that attack the wrong target

• Ad hominem: attacking the person instead of their argument. Kennesaw State's example: "She is for raising the minimum wage, but she is not smart enough to even run a business."
• Straw man: distorting someone's view into a weaker version, then attacking that. Purdue OWL's example: claiming that people who oppose a minimum wage rise must hate the poor.
• Red herring: changing the subject to distract from the real issue, such as answering a question about safety by talking about jobs (Purdue OWL).
• Guilt by association: rejecting an idea only because someone disliked also supports it (Kennesaw State).

Fallacies that squeeze your choices

• False dilemma (either/or): presenting only two options when more exist. Purdue OWL's example: "we must either stop using cars or destroy the earth", ignoring cleaner technology and other options.
• Slippery slope: claiming one small step will inevitably lead to an extreme result, without showing why each step must follow (Purdue OWL, Kennesaw State).
• Appeal to fear: warning of a frightening future to push a decision now, without evidence the threat is real (Kennesaw State).

Fallacies about evidence and causes

• Hasty generalisation: a conclusion drawn from too little evidence. Kennesaw State's example: a few teenagers vandalise a park, so "teenagers are so irresponsible".
• Post hoc ("after this, therefore because of this"): assuming that because B followed A, A caused B. Purdue OWL's example: blaming bottled water for an illness that came afterwards when other causes are possible.
• Bandwagon: something must be right or good because many people do it. Kennesaw State's example: "Everyone is going to get the new smart phone... Why aren't you?"
• Circular argument: the reason simply repeats the claim, for example "He is a good communicator because he speaks effectively" (Purdue OWL).

Using this without being rude

• Naming a fallacy out loud ("That's a straw man") often makes people defensive. Instead, ask a question: "Is that really what they said?" or "Are those the only two options?"
• A fallacy in someone's argument does not prove their conclusion is false. It only means that this particular argument does not support it.
• Check your own writing and speaking for fallacies first. It is the fastest way to make your essays and debates stronger.
• Remember that confirmation bias makes all of us hold opposing arguments to a higher standard than ones we agree with, so test arguments you like as hard as ones you dislike (see the cognitive biases lesson).