Who the Stoics were and the four virtues

Stoicism is a school of philosophy that began in Athens more than two thousand years ago and is still read by students, athletes, doctors and leaders today. Before using its tools, it helps to know who the Stoics were and what they were actually aiming for.

Where Stoicism began

• Zeno of Citium (in modern-day Cyprus) founded Stoicism in Athens around 300 BCE, according to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP).
• The name comes from the Stoa Poikile, the 'painted porch', an open area by the market in Athens where the early Stoics met and taught.
• After Zeno, the school was led by Cleanthes and then Chrysippus, who reorganised its teaching and developed new ideas in logic.
• The school's motto was 'follow nature' or 'live according to nature'. For the Stoics this meant living by reason and by our nature as social beings who belong to a wider community.
• Stoicism was meant to be practised, not just studied. Its writers give exercises and routines, which is why it still feels useful to people today.

Three Romans you will meet in this module

• Epictetus (born in the 50s CE, died about 135 CE) came from Hierapolis, in today's Turkey, and spent part of his life enslaved in Rome. He studied Stoic philosophy with Musonius Rufus, gained his freedom and began teaching, then founded a school at Nicopolis in Greece after the emperor Domitian banned philosophers from Italy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, SEP).
• As far as we know, Epictetus did not write his teaching down himself. Arrian of Nicomedia recorded it in the Discourses, and the Enchiridion, usually translated 'Handbook' or 'Manual', is a short digest of them (SEP).
• Seneca was born in Corduba, today's Cordoba in Spain, most likely around 4 BCE (IEP). He was tutor to the young Nero and an influential adviser after Nero became emperor in 54 CE, before withdrawing from court around 62 CE (SEP). He wrote essays such as On Anger and On the Shortness of Life, and 124 surviving letters to his friend Lucilius (IEP). He died in 65 CE on Nero's orders.
• Marcus Aurelius was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 CE. His Meditations are 12 books of private notes to himself, written in Greek, probably partly while he was on military campaigns in central Europe. He was influenced by Epictetus and quotes him several times (IEP).
• So the three best-known Stoic writers were a former slave, a wealthy political adviser and an emperor. The ideas were meant for anyone, whatever their position.

The four virtues

• The Stoics named four cardinal virtues: practical wisdom, courage, justice and temperance (self-control).
• Practical wisdom: knowing what is truly good, bad or neither, and judging well what to do. Example: deciding calmly whether to retake a mock exam or move on to the next topic.
• Courage: doing the right thing when it is uncomfortable or frightening. Example: telling a teacher you do not understand, or speaking up when a classmate is being mocked.
• Justice: treating people fairly and kindly. The IEP describes Stoic justice as concern for an ever-widening circle of people, from family and friends outwards, and lists kindness and sociability as parts of it.
• Temperance: self-control and moderation. Example: putting the phone in another room during revision, or not saying the sharp thing you are tempted to post.

What the Stoics counted as 'good'

• The Stoics held that virtue is the only true good and is enough for a flourishing life (IEP).
• Things like health, wealth and education are 'indifferents'. They are 'preferred', so it is sensible to pursue them, but they are not good or bad in themselves.
• Sickness, poverty and ignorance are 'dispreferred' indifferents. You may sensibly avoid them, but they do not make you a worse person.
• Applied to school: a top grade is a preferred indifferent. Studying honestly and steadily is where your character shows, whatever the grade turns out to be.

Who Stoicism is for

• Musonius Rufus, Epictetus's teacher, taught that women are just as capable of practising virtue and doing philosophy as men (IEP).
• The Stoics described an ideal wise person, the 'Sage', but in practice they focused on making progress rather than being perfect.
• This module treats Stoicism as one useful toolkit for calm, courage and self-control. You can use its exercises alongside your own faith, values and culture.